Joel Polack, 5. Manners and Customs of New Zealanders
Joel Polack attained some fame and probably made some money with the publication of his Narrative, and was persuaded to write another book about New Zealand. There was a burgeoning interest in New Zealand as a land to emigrate to, a place where one could make a fortune, or just have a life better than the life in the slums of Britain. Narrative was published by Richard Bentley, renowned for travel books, but the new book was commissioned by James Madden & Hatchard and son, publisher of a number of books on slavery, on Jamaica, but they were also publishers of fiction and general non-fiction. They were enterprising publishers on the look out for new markets for books. With the New Zealand Association and its backers pushing aggressively for the colonization of New Zealand, they saw an opportunity for a new informative book on the land by someone who had lived there for some time, was familiar with the country, spoke the language of its people, and had an inquiring mind. It was evident that Polack was an educated man, familiar with the classics, had traveled widely and knew a broad range of travel literature.
By the time Polack’s second book, Manners and Customs of New Zealanders was published in 1840, his first book, New Zealand: Being a Narrative of Travels and Adventures During a Residence in that County Between the Years 1831 and 1837 had sold out and was out of print. Whereas the first book was largely focused on Polack’s travels, his encounter with people and a description of aspects of the land, its inhabitants, their beliefs and customs, the geography of the land, its flora and fauna, the second books was largely about the the people who lived there. They were perceived as hostile, war-like cannibals. The massacre of the British ship, Boyd in 1809, though thirty years in the past, still colored British perception of the natives.1 66 of the crew of 70 of the Boyd were killed and eaten. The natives were considered a hostile, dangerous people, inimical to civilization. Yet in the years since the arrival of Europeans, the lives of the natives of New Zealand went through a period of extraordinarily rapid change. Within two decades they acquired European weapons, which enabled tribes with access to such weapons to exterminate others that had less, or no contact with Europeans. They acquired European metal tools, with which they could transform their agriculture, trade in produce that Europeans needed, potato, pork, food in general, timber, flax, and they could use the income from these to buy European items that they needed or desired, clothes, tools, nails, tobacco, and above all, weapons and gun powder. Some also learned to read and write, taught by the missionaries, and learned about the world outside their island home.
Polack set out to write a detailed account of native society, their customs, traditions, social structure, beliefs, their weapons and fortifications. Almost as a conclusion, he gave a brief description of the land, its geography, harbours and features that might make it suitable for European settlement, and the potential of colonization. But he also thought that having acquired lethal European weapons, the natives of New Zealand were doomed to extinction without British intervention, as indeed happened to the natives of large parts of Australia and other lands once Europeans set about displacing them.
He addressed the question of who these people were. He was under the misapprehension that they were descended from two different ethnic groups: with two distinct races of ancestors. ‘The Malay or Mulatto tribes,’ he thought, ‘invariably assert their physical power over the darker or Papua race, and the latter, intuitively, by their habits and manners, verify the fact’2. Perhaps he thought that the tribes living near the coast, with many contacts with Europeans were more like South-East Asians, while the more remote inland tribes, with little contacts with Europeans, were more backward, primitive. These assertions had no scientific basis, but for many years, European ethnographers tried to establish similarities between Polynesian people and South-East Asians whom they described by the generic term of Malay, more like Europeans, while considering Melanesian, the natives of Papua or Australian aborigines, more backward, primitive, less like the “civilized” British.
He described the origin story of these strange people: the legend of Mawe [Maui] fishing, raising above the surface of the water a portion of New Zealand. He compared such stories with stories familiar to educated Europeans, ‘the adventures of Mawe and his ambitious family on earth, bear a great resemblance to the adventures of Jupiter and Juno, Neptune and Proserpine, Mars and Pallas, Pluto and Eolus. Although the traditions of the origin of the people were variously described, he thought that ‘several have much in common with the traditions of the numerous nations that have spread themselves over an immense tract of ocean from New Zealand to the Sandwich Islands, and from Tonga to Easter Island’3.
In Polack’s account, the natives of New Zealand were a war-like people trained from an early age in the art of war, and described their tactics, ruses, war dances and threats, all very different from the European concepts of disciplined armies and warfare. It was drama, theatre, with vigorous war dances, noisy exhortations, and mimicry. Women accompanied their husbands to war. And the protagonists, often related, would break off fighting, exchange whatever one had and the other needed. War, revenge for past wrongs or insults, gave meaning to tribal society. Running away from the battle was far from shameful, it was considered prudence, but Polack described in detail the fate of those unfortunates who were captured, tortured, cooked and eaten. Describing the battles of the New Zealand natives he drew comparison with the Normans who, delighted in war, fighting the Anglo-Saxons and noted that horrors of the wars of the natives were ‘much exceeded by the enormities committed by the barons of Europe, during the first thirteen centuries’4. The veneer of civilization as Europeans understood it was very thin.
To make his account more vivid, he illustrated things that could not be adequately described, such as the weapons of the natives.
Spears formerly in use among the New Zealanders.
The Hani or Native Spear.
And added some portrait’s.
He described how battles were fought. He drew parallels of fortifications described in the the Book of Samuel with native stockades.5 He also noted that ‘Marriages have been instituted, to accommodate hostilities’6
Writing about the brutalities of war, the severed heads, he acknowledged the practice of Egyptians of preserving tongues of the slain, Greeks beheading their enemies, and the spectacle of heads decorating principal cities of Great Britain. Describing and illustrating tattooing or marking the body in some way, he noted that it was common practice among Greeks, Egyptians, Picts, Scots, Celts, and Anglo-Saxon Britons, making representations of animals, trees, fish, insects, the celestial bodies, &c7
Slaves and slavery had existed in New Zealand from the earliest memories of the people8 Polack noted, but the institution of slavery that the the people of Britain knew was very different from the one that existed in New Zealand. Slaves in New Zealand were people captured and taken in war, not traded as chattel, as in the British colonies or former colonies. ‘A slave or taurekareka [is] not the miserable being the British public are inclined to think’9 Polack observed. They were treated as other free members of the tribes, they were involved in the everyday labour of the community, they took part in wars, at times even against tribes of their relatives, and by comparison. For comparison and to explore the concept of slavery, Polack gives instances of the way slaves were treated by the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Ottomans, the Arabs, and mentions also the Biblical story of Joseph, sold into slavery, but elevated to the highest office in ancient Egypt.
Native society was patriarchal, the head of the family holding sway. Domestic and foreign affairs were discussed by the principal chiefs in an open assembly. Matters of utu, revenge for a slight or insult and tapu, spiritual restrictions, featured large in daily lives. Polack addressed issues of property rights, boats, canoes shipwrecked that were plundered, land, once sold with the consent of all parties, was alienated for ever, borders were defined by features of the landscape. A matter of likely great interest for would be settlers was the acquisition of land, and mentioned the vast tracts of of land acquired by some of the missionaries, compared with which his own modest purchases, some acquired under duress, were negligible.
New Zealand had already been an attractive destination for settlement. Polack noted that in the two years before he published his book the number of Europeans who had settled there exceeded the number who had lived there previously. They came not only from the United Kingdom, but also from Australia, France, United States and India. New Zealand was seen as the future granary of Australia, but advised prospective settlers to consider the climate and conditions of the various parts of the country, which he described in some detail before deciding on where to settle .
The Chief of the tribe and every member of it, as well as everyone who had an interest in the land, would have to agree to the sale of the land, a subject of great interest to the book’s readers. ‘Immense profits may be realized, by the purchase of land in a new country10, Polack noted and gave examples from investments in Australia. There was a lot of capital in Britain chasing investment opportunities.
Marriage customs, crime, health were all parts of Polack’s description of native lives. He described the codes for marriage, and drew parallels with Levitical ordinances. There were no prisons, he noted, criminals [malefactors] were dealt with by enforcing tapu against them. The land was scarcely populated, and Polack believed that this was due to infanticide and wars. He believed that this decline in population would be halted and reversed by colonization. Considering health he mentioned that the diseases that afflicted Europeans were formerly unknown, and were introduced by Europeans. He wrote about native concepts of morality; that theft, lying, cheating were acceptable, even deemed clever as long as the thief, the liar, the cheat could get away with it.
With the arrival of Europeans trade developed. With opportunities to trade with Europeans, agriculture developed to produce goods that they could exchange for items that they wanted, muskets and powder, blankets, trinkets. The natives enjoyed the give and take of bargaining. As they encountered Europeans they also demanded the ‘why and how’, and as they learned from missionaries to read and write, wanted find out more about the world beyond their shores. Gradually, as Polack saw it, as they were becoming better acquainted with the English character, they ‘would become an ‘orderly and well-conducted a people’ 11 , though he was aware that there were difficulties for British settlers living in the country in dealing with the natives.
Polack dwelled on the significance of names, and what they represented. He hoped that the native names would be preserved and not changed like the missionaries were inclined to do. He devoted a section to education. As the natives of the land had no written language, all education was oral, as, he points out, in ancient Israel, where people were commanded to teach their 12children when sitting in the house, when walking, when lying down and when rising. The language was a Polynesian dialect. The natives delighted in speaking English and he regretted that missionaries did not chose to teach English to the natives, which would have opened up for them an ‘immense store of works’ instead of ‘mechanical devotion’ that could never ‘illuminate the native mind’.13 The natives delighted in traveling, traversing the country, and even traveled across Europe, Asia, Africa and America. Writing about understanding the native language Polack noted the problem presented by the different pronunciations of the same word. He remarked that strangers from different parts of Polynesia would understand each other more easily than Englishmen living in different counties like Somersetshire and Cornwall would.
Having described the natives as treacherous, cruel, mean, hostile cannibals, Polack noted that having lived among them, he learned to also appreciate their attractive qualities; the endearing affection of parents for their children, the generosity of people, their hospitality. Hospitality was accompanied by elaborate festivities, dancing, which Polack described in detailed. He also wrote about their music, ballads, each devoted to a different season and activities associated with it. The chants were simple, but their subjects, such as voyages, war, cannibalism, were accompanied by mimicking what the chant was about. He described their entertainment; activities, wrestling, kite flying, games, drawing, ‘at which some natives are very expert’, playing upon words, riddles, and story telling. He illustrated the native musical instruments with detailed drawings of flutes, the conch used as a native trumpet. He also depicted a range of ornaments, making his account native lives more vivid.
The final chapters of the book were about immediate concerns of would be settlers: the geography of the land, shipping, settlements, and various attempts at establishing settlements. Finally, he touched on the success and failure of attempts at settlement, the challenges facing a colonial government, the conduct of Europeans towards the native inhabitants, and the deliberations of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on the State of New Zealand.
Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders was widely noticed. ‘Everything pertaining to New Zealand and its inhabitants is now of the greatest interest, as the tide of emigration flows strongly in that quarter.’1 But reading the book, reviewers focused on different subjects covered by the book. The Argus picked up on the European ways as it affected the natives, civilization as it was understood by British readers. ‘Mr. Polack has resided long and enjoyed almost unrestrained intercourse with natives of every class,’ the reviewer noted, ‘and being acquainted with their language, has possessed the best means of becoming thoroughly acquainted with them; we are glad to find from his statements that already they exhibit symptoms of movement towards civilization which speaks well for their progress and for the safety of those who may venture among them.2 The Naval and Military Gazette was interested in the description of Maori warfare and its role in Maori life. It also noted that ‘The character of Mr. Polack has, it appears has been recently attacked by several writers,’ but accepts Polack’s view, that he was ‘very unjustly vilified’.3 The Caledonian Mercury of Edinburgh noted the ways of the subdivision of the land, important for those contemplating moving to New Zealand, acquiring some land and perhaps making money. It also described the skills of the natives, their usefulness as potential servants. ‘Many of the New Zealanders, influenced by the force of British habits, arts and industry, have become fair specimens of carpenters, joiners, blacksmiths, coopers, wheelwrights, etc. Their national taste seem, however, to be for seamanship and agriculture, in both of which they have made great progress.’4 They all broadly agreed that ‘Of all the writers on the subject, the author of the present volumes is by far the most entertaining and useful. He has resided long in that country, and has familiarized himself with every matter worth recording. Unlike most other travelers, who are content to skim the surface, and give the readers a few commonplace facts as a result of observation, he enters into the subject with a comprehensiveness’.5
Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders was widely noticed. ‘Everything pertaining to New Zealand and its inhabitants is now of the greatest interest, as the tide of emigration flows strongly in that quarter.’6 But reading the book, reviewers focused on different subjects covered by the book. The Argus picked up on the European ways as it affected the natives, civilization as it was understood by British readers. ‘Mr. Polack has resided long and enjoyed almost unrestrained intercourse with natives of every class,’ the reviewer noted, ‘and being acquainted with their language, has possessed the best means of becoming thoroughly acquainted with them; we are glad to find from his statements that already they exhibit symptoms of movement towards civilization which speaks well for their progress and for the safety of those who may venture among them.7 The Naval and Military Gazette was interested in the description of Maori warfare and its role in Maori life. It also noted that ‘The character of Mr. Polack has, it appears has been recently attacked by several writers,’ but accepts Polack’s view, that he was ‘very unjustly vilified’.8 The Caledonian Mercury of Edinburgh noted the ways of the subdivision of the land, important for those contemplating moving to New Zealand, acquiring some land and perhaps making money from it. It also described the skills of the natives, their usefulness as workers. ‘Many of the New Zealanders, influenced by the force of British habits, arts and industry, have become fair specimens of carpenters, joiners, blacksmiths, coopers, wheelwrights, etc. Their national taste seem, however, to be for seamanship and agriculture, in both of which they have made great progress.’9 They all broadly agreed that ‘Of all the writers on the subject, the author of the present volumes is by far the most entertaining and useful. He has resided long in that country, and has familiarized himself with every matter worth recording. Unlike most other travelers, who are content to skim the surface, and give the readers a few commonplace facts as a result of observation, he enters into the subject with a comprehensiveness’.10 To this day Polack’s books are invaluable sources of European insight into New Zealand life in te years immediately before colonization and the influx of European settlers.
1 Dublin Monitor, Thursday evening, March 18, 1941
2 The Argus or Broad-sheet of the Empire 12 April 1840
3 The Naval and Military Gazette and Weekly Chronicle 25 April 1840
4 Caledonian Merury, Edinburgh, Monday, April 6, 1840
5 Dublin Monitor, Thursday evening, March 18, 1941
6 Dublin Monitor, Thursday evening, March 18, 1941
7 The Argus or Broad-sheet of the Empire 12 April 1840
8 The Naval and Military Gazette and Weekly Chronicle 25 April 1840
9 Caledonian Merury, Edinburgh, Monday, April 6, 1840
10 Dublin Monitor, Thursday evening, March 18, 1941
1The term ‘Maori’ is inappropriate for that period. The people of New Zealand identified with their tribes, but had no concept of Maori nationhood.
2Manners and Customs Vol 1, p.12
3Ibid, p. 19, see also https://teara.govt.nz/en/ideas-about-maori-origins/page-2
4Manners ans Customs p.24
5Ibid P. 26
6Ibid P. 37
7Ibid P. 51
8Ibid P. 52
9Ibid P. 53
10Ibid P.83
11Manners and Customs P. 122
12Ibid Footnote P. 152
13Ibid P. 147
